History, Relevance in Todays Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

History, Relevance in Todays Market - Essay Example In this regard the most famous and widely used method is of Performance Related Pay (Brown & Armstrong, 1999). In order to better understand the concept of Performance Related Pay, it will be beneficial to first comprehend the meaning of the performance. Performance means the output or end result given by any party or person. In the reference to the performance of the employees, it is perceived to be the fulfilment of the task or job responsibility which is measured on the basis of standards set for different factors like accuracy, time, cost etc. PERFORMANCE RELATED PAY: Performance Related Pay (PRP) is the method used by the organisations in order to directly relate the pay or reward with the performance of the employees. It is strongly believed that the increased or additional pay increase the motivation level of the employees and they strive to give high performance. In this method several bonuses and pay levels are directly linked with the appraisal or assessment of the performa nce of the employees in comparison to the objectives and standards. ... It can be further divided into straight piecework and differential piecework. 2. Merit pay: it is further divided into fixed incremental scales, merit bars, percentage increases, merit bonuses, and cafeteria benefits. 3. Profit Sharing: profits sharing or sharing incentives plans are provided to very limited and loyal employees of the organisation in order to retain them and motivate them to give high performance. In this system the employees are awarded with some shares of the organisation in response to their outstanding performance and output. 4. Commission: in this system the employees are provided with a certain percentage of commission in relation with the amount of work done or sales made. Usually commission is used to increase the motivation level and performance of the sales team. RELEVANCE OF PERFORMANCE RELATED PAY IN TODAYS MARKET: It is important for the organisations to include and consider the prevalent economic condition in the process of designing the pay system or s cheme. Most of the analysts are of the view that the concept of the Performance Related Pay is no more effective and relevant for the organisations in view of the recent economic downturn and crisis. On the other hand, according to another school of thought organisations have become more concerned about the overall cost and setup of the pay structure and compensation. In order to justify the cost of the pay and compensation structure, organisations are striving to linking this cost with the benefits derived. As a result, these organisations are widely using the method of Performance Related Pay (Brown & Armstrong, 1999). Apart from the economic crisis, increasing globalisation and free trade across the economies of the world have

Achievement of Modern Bureaucracies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Achievement of Modern Bureaucracies - Essay Example In an extreme form bureaucratic organizations fail to do what they are supposed to because rules and regulations are applied so rigidly that employees lose sight of what their job is. Bureaucracy, as a sociological concept, was originally developed by Max Weber, one of the first sociologists to consider the role of individuals in relation to the structural determinants of social action. Much of his work was concerned with the notion of â€Å"rationality†, which he used to explain the development of Western society which was increasingly based on science and calculation. Bureaucracy, combined with the growth of large organizations throughout the nineteenth century, led Weber to conclude that the decisive reason for the advance of bureaucratic organization was its purely technical superiority over any other form of organization. In short, it was a description of an ideal type of organization. Not ideal in the sense that it was perfect or one that should be aimed for, rather that its structure contained specific elements that characterized it as a bureaucracy and which were necessary to manage the organizations of the day. This occurs in part because public bureaucracies sometimes perceive themselves as guardians of the national interest: there is the idea that they embody ideals that transcend the policies of particular government: they can develop a character of their own and become set in their ways and difficult to change. In these circumstances professionals can be more concerned with their own survival than with the broader aims of providing for needs of the consumers of their service. This can be observed in the barriers that can exist between the different wards and departments and the lack of co-operation that ensues. The study of spatial separation is called proxemics; it involves the exploration of different practices and feelings about interpersonal space within and across cultures. In the United States, general practice allows intimate communications between close friends to occur at very short range. Conversations with acquaintances are often held at a 3-4 feet personal distance. Work-related discussions between colleagues may occur at a social distance of 4 to 12 feet with more impersonal and formal conversations in public occurring at even greater distances. Not only it is important to know and observe common practice with regard to the nature of the underlying relationships (intimate, friendly, work-related or casual) between two parties; it is also imperative that these practices be adapted for cultural differences. In some societies, sharply different practices prevail. For example, Latin America and Asian cultures generally favor closer distances for personal conversations; and workers in Arab countries often maintain extremely close contact. Therefore, sender should be aware of cultural norms and the receiver's preferences, and make an effort to understand and adapt to them. Bureaucratic Power Political conflict does not end after a law has been passed by Congress and signed by the president. The arena of conflict merely shifts from Capitol Hill and the White House to the bureaucracy - to the myriad departments, agencies, and bureaus of the federal executive branch that implement the law. Despite the popular impression that policy is decided by the president and Congress and merely implemented by the federal bureaucracy, in fact policy is also made by the bureaucracy. Indeed, it is often remarked that "implementation is the continuation of policy making by other means." The Washington bureaucracy is a major base of power in the American system of government - independent of Congress, the president, the courts, and the people. Indeed, controlling the bureaucracy has become a major challenge of democratic

Criminal Justice System in my Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Criminal Justice System in my Community - Essay Example Victimization is also an aspect while presenting disparities along the social environments. The essay will focus on disparities along criminal justice with an aim of identifying the motivating factors within these differences. According to U.S. Department of Justice (2004), there is a misrepresentation among the races. The African Americans and other minority groups are highly represented in the crime reports. These reports are both victims and perpetuators. In this case, the minority groups represent a higher percentage of people convicted for various offences. Historical injustices are attributed to these facts. The society has developed itself a long social components. The African American and other minorities have accounted for a larger portion of criminal justice. The high population in the correctional facilities indicates the disparities between the race and crime. The high crime rate among the minorities indicates the race concept in criminal justice. Race is a factor in determining the crime rate and the justice system. The male population represents a large percentage of people under incarceration. The female population account for less than 30 percent of people being imprisoned (U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). The statistics reflects across races. The trend reflects in the white majority and the African Americans and Hispanic population. The male represents a high percentage of new crime case. The male attribute more than 50% percent of new crime cases. On the other hand, females account for the largest victims (U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). They are more affected than their male counterparts given the physical and psychological aspects. Kraska (2006) attribute the social components at which people could be prompt to certain levels of injustices. The connection between gender and crime is attributed to the social aspect in that people may engage in crime as a means

Understanding Organizational Performance Essay Example for Free

Understanding Organizational Performance Essay The focus of this paper will be on investigating an organization, their performance management system and our recommendations for the future. Historically performance management is defined as evaluation a firm through metrics such as return on investment and economic value added. Our analysis will cover not only the financial performance of our chosen firm, but also their values in behaviors as well as their objectives. Thus, we will ascertain if the current system of performance management held by the firm is aligned with their objectives and appropriate for their situation. 1.1 – Why is strategic performance management important? Strategic performance management is a process where an organization develops its objectives, mission, and strategy, and measures and guides itself through management of key performance indicators or other success factors. Czarnecki (1999), states that measuring your organizations performance through each of the areas of most impact is essential for thoroughly assessing your performance. Thus when a firm like TESCO is preparing to make decisions they need to analyze a relevant data which can be converted into actionable information on their performance objectives. 1.2 – Describe the structure and plan of the investigation The structure of this investigation will be to first discuss the organization and its activities in the sector. Secondly, we will discuss the history of performance management of the organization and the relation between their systems and the actual performance. Finally, we conclude with highlighting any areas of improvement and making recommendations for seni or management. 2.0 – Performance Management in TESCO TESCO has employed a system called the TESCO steering wheel to handle performance measurement. This process is similar to the balanced scorecard created by Norton and Kaplan. The TESCO steering wheel was implemented in the late 1990’s and served as part of the critical expansion that the firm underwent as they explored innovative retail formats, product lines, and geographic areas. It can be attributed to their newfound success. 2.1 – Introduction to TESCO The organization that we will be investigating will be TESCO. TESCO is one of the largest retailers in the world and an organization which has shown success in utilizing strategic performance management. There are several styles of performance management which range from Porter’s five forces, to lean management, to the chaos model. The model which was discovered in 1996 and has been one of the most popular is the balanced scorecard. This model which was discovered by Norton and Kaplan has been used by  ¾ of European and Fortune 500 organizations (Balanced Scorecard, 2010). TESCO is unique in that it has implemented this model successfully. In 1995, Tesco surpassed its competitors Sainsbury’s as the top superstore in the United Kingdom. This catapulted its market shares from 15.4% in 1988 to about 29% in 2004. Acquisitions include the famed convenience superstore, TS plc and almost 900 stores around the UK. TESCO has a 30% market share in the United Kingdom and is dominating the market over its competitors. 2.2 – Why are they in business (Stakeholder or Shareholder?) TESCO is in business and highly successful because their founder was a driving force in setting up a foundation of a thriving market in the UK early on. He believed in piling products high and selling them at a cheap price. Since, the company has gone public they have placed close attention to the desires of the shareholders and places the fifth perspective of the steering wheel (financial) as a big component in the performance of their executives. Spitzer (2007) stated that holistic performance measurement enables management to continually assess the fruits of their labor with conducting a review. 2.3 – Strategic performance management of TESCO In regard to investing in their workforce, TESCO believes strongly that human capital is one of their most precious resources. The organization has their â€Å"options programme† which is designed to focus on long-term strategic goals for employees. They also have on job training, which is a cost effective way to ensure that their staff is capable of performing well. Tesco Leadership Framework is directed at three key themes to guide behavior in all employees. These behaviors link to nine critical success factors. The critical success factors can be segmented in several levels of assessment. This aids management in selecting the staff with the capacity to become high performing contributors to organisations. As part of the long term  strategy of the corporation, discovering future leaders is of the utmost importance. TESCO states that they will select leaders wherever they can be found in the organization for advancement. Promotions are a regular occurrence as over 2,900 man agers were promoted internally in the United Kingdom and literally thousands more in international locations. The Options programme is a more infrequently used as only 1 in 30 employees are enrolled while basic training and development happens about every 1 in 10 members of TESCO. Before beginning their development plan, each member of the TESCO staff selects gaps in their skills and competencies. The Personal Development Plan has a section where they can select this information for their line managers to check on in the future. 2.4 – What is strategic performance management? Who says so? The balanced scorecard is the most widely used standard for performance management. As mentioned before, performance management is defined as reaching objectives which can be quantified financially. Performance most times is just simply put as achieving success in your business operations. Therefore, performance means process and manner of functioning to attain beforehand objectives which you set out to achieve. Therefore, behavior must be tied to a result which will be judge throughout the fiscal year of operations for the firm. The balanced scorecard is an excellent tool to keep the organization planning and strategizing forward rather than assessing their operation based on past results. Performance management in many organizations is conducted and reported by line managers who are continuously overseeing employees and operations and giving a formal review at designated times. The values, mission, and objectives of the organizations are intertwined with the financial value added so that the process is flexible and requires less dialogue unless a major event occurs. 2.5 – Is performance management evident at a strategic level in TESCO? On the executive level of the firm compensation is closely tied to the performance of the firm which is common for most public firms. Earlier in 2012 it was found that performance bonuses were slashed to 16.9 per cent of the maximum. This was due to the fact that TESCO was behind its competitors in the UK in terms of sales in 2011 and the top 5,000 managers felt the pain of the company’s shortcomings. 3.0 – TESCO’s Activities and Environment TESCO is a global organization with facilities in over 14 nations and their headquarters being in the United Kingdom with 260 million plus as clients available at their hub. Their outlets have several different types of styles from hypermarket, to non-food item stores, to membership clubs. If one would take into consideration the enormous size of TESCO, it is easy to see that they would require a strategic performance management system which is flexible and nimble. Jones (2012) states that global organization need to have a holistic approach towards managing their operations and not a segmented method. This is crucial in the retail market. The retail market is nonetheless a competitive industry with commoditized stores and international competition in many of the markets the TESCO operates in. Therefore, TESCO has chosen the balanced scorecard approach which has given them success. 3.1 – What activities does TESCO engage in and in what sector? TESCO is a global grocery and merchandise corporation which was founded in the United Kingdom. The organization started IN 1919 with the retail sale of groceries and has diversified its product mix to include electronics, furniture, clothing, and books. Therefore, the company operates in multiple sectors and has a presence on every continent. The company used the aggressive strategy and approach of Jack Cohen to become one of the largest retail outlets on the planet behind only Carrefour and Wal-Mart. Sectors include: Groceries, electronics, financial services, petrol, telecommunications, clothing, music downloads 3.2 – What context does TESCO’s performance management fit in? Organizational performance can be viewed from a number of perspectives. We see that through the eyes of the customer TESCO was perceived as supplying excellent value and service. This perception was sufficient to place them as the top brand when they surpassed Sainsbury. Organizational performance can also be evaluated through financial, social, and environmental perspectives. This is where performance management at TESCO fits in. The TESCO steering wheel is a model internally shows that the firm has a holistic view towards management (Paul, 2008). This relationship exemplifies the relationship with decision making and performance where executives place emphasis on making decisions based on how far reaching the impactions are. 3.3 – Are TESCO’s performance measurements appropriate to that context? Yes, their performance measurements are actively aligned with the core assets which are integral to the success of  their organization. 4.0 – Managing Performance to Improve Decision-making: Specific example in IT Services The British retailer recently implemented a programme called Step Change, to advance its IT efficiency. Tesco placed a large amount of capital in information technology across its operations in the hopes it will keep up with the 21st century trends which lead to more mobile payments, ecommerce and efficiency gains through IT. In the earlier part of 2008, food sales over the internet made large gains of 49% higher in the last financial year, which lead to even more investment. 4.1 – What type of strategy does TESCO adopt? TESCO implements the balanced scorecard through the TESCO steering wheel. The steering wheel has 5 perspectives which cover different areas. The corporate vision and strategy of TESCO is motivated by its customer base, products, services, and the industry that it operates in. Upper management understands that margins can be slim in an industry where competition is tight and becoming a strong brand with heterogeneous image is important. Corporate strategy is inherently focused on financial gain which can be problematic of other objectives are not met (Graham, 2005). The component has lent itself back to business school basics by relying on the teachings of Porter’s five forces model. The model teaches that bargaining power of suppliers, customers, substitutes, buyers, and competitors are working against at any one moment in time. ASDA and Sainsbury due pose threats to TESCO domestically in the UK as they are established have developed brands which are perceived to have equal or greater value in the eye of the customer. Nevertheless, the threats of suppliers moving to their competitors are slimmer as TESCO has made great strides in infrastructure. The Perspectives Customer – Being an affordable and friendly retailer is crucial for TESCO. The customer is seen as the focus as competing products and sales channels can be seen more frequently with technology. Internal – Operations which are run smoothly with excellent customer service leads to keeping costs low and clients happy. TESCO is proactive in this area by offering club cards, and loyalty program with discounts and rewards. Learning – This perspective is seen through training, learning and focused supervision on employees so that they are nurtured to achieve their potential. Financial – Increasing sales,  optimizing investments, and keeping the shareholders happy are the focus of this perspective. Community – Corporate social responsibility is a key word as it relates to this perspective. TESCO was known to have a high carbon footprint, and it has strived to not only reinvest in the community, but reinvest it operates so that there is a keen interest in having a positive social impact. 4.2 – How does TESCO formulate its strategy? TESCO formulates its strategy based on the desires of the customer. According to Terry Leahy, Tesco’s Chief Executive, he states this clearly when he says â€Å"Let me tell you a secret, the secret of successful retailing. It’s this: never stop listening to your customers and giving them what they want.† This is the methodology which makes the organization one of the most successful in the world as every little contribution counts as long as it is helping build the bond between TESCO and its consumer base. This is the rationale behind the corporate strategy which is measured by the TESCO steering wheel. Axson (2010) stated that long term decision making is more soundly aligned with a balance array of operational strengths. This supports the decision which management has made it this firm. 4.3 – What are TESCO’s performance objectives? Does performance match expectations? TESCO’s performance objectives are essentially its 5 perspectives which are different areas covered in the steering wheel. Because the steering wheel is like the balanced score card it has a method of leading to performance which addresses TESCO’s impact on the triple bottom line (people, planet, profit) and allows the company to match and exceed expectations in several areas. Lunger (2007) states that the 21st century problems facing each and every organization requires incorporation of corporate stewardship into your overall strategy. 4.4 – How does TESCO inform its decision-making through performance? What tool does it use? TESCO utilizes the Balanced Scorecard method which is closely aligned with its corporate strategy. 4.5 – Critical evaluate of the tool, its benefits, limitations and it’s appropriateness to TESCO’s strategy The benefits of the tool also stem into the fact as it became a symbol of cohesion and empowerment within the firm. TESCO’s leader, Sir Terry Leahy, stated that he did not want strategy to be the work of only an isolated few individuals in the firm but the work of all of his employees. That is when the company started using the steering wheel in all  of their locations. Sir Terry Leahy ended up shutting down the strategy department completely (Jones, 2012). This was definitely seen as a controversial move as it meant that the executive level where not the sole contributor to what historically is the vision of the firm. The limitation of TESCO’s strategy here is that it is somewhat segmented in its approach as there will be no stores which are identical because they will all be run independently with their own steering wheels. This works agai nst the model that many retailers have at claiming to offer the same experience at every location. 4.6 – Identify areas for improvement A weakness for the company would be performance in the UK. Therefore development of Domestic operations is a major area of improvement for TESCO. The New CEO who succeeded Sir Leahy, Clarke, has vowed to make it an objective to have their profits in the UK become strong and growing. This is an admission of the company falling short of its expected performance for the most recent year. Part of the reasoning behind is the spectacular growth internationally of TESCO due its profits lent to underlying underperformance domestically as it has lost ground to ASDA and Sainsbury and the last three years. Crisis Management and Quality control falls under the community and customer perspective of the TESCO wheel (Marr, 2009). TESCO is reported to not have performed well in the backlash of a recent issue with suppliers and its grocery line. Recently, in early 2013, the media in the United Kingdom reported that horse meat had been found in some meat products sold by this organization, particularl y burgers. The company was quick to state that this was unacceptable activity. 5.0 – Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 – Review and summary of your investigative findings The overall review of the findings of our report shows that TESCO is in good financial condition and its corporate strategy has achieved its objectives. The strategy has always been customer centric but it has been fruitful in economic value added and financial performance. Austerity has been a large issue in the European Union over the last few years and can bear the brunt of the blame in the lagging performance that TESCO has domestically in comparison to overseas. TESCO has seen strong growth in the United States as well as Asia. The dividend policy is forward looking at TESCO and the  overall change in management still needs time for the market to evaluate. When Sir Terry Leahy left TESCO stock crashed but has recovered. Still, the defensive position in the UK which TESCO has built over the years is proving to be vital as they weather the forces of competition domestically. 5.2 – Recommendations for identifying areas for improvement In regard to operations management, I would recommend that Tesco continue their use of the TESCO Steering wheel and invest stronger in internationally markets like Asia. Tescos highest growth came in Asia where profits grew by 30% to  £570m in 2011 (Hawke, 2011). The need to focus on the community and internal perspectives with innovations is what I see as the focus for the future. The opportunity to win back business from their competitors will require emerging a corporate citizen who cares about loyalty and the well-being of their consumer base will go a long way. This can be obtained by re-examining the performance management systems and not believing that their historical strength will continue to prove valuable in a competitive retail market. TESCO recently invested 500 million GBP as a stimulus package called â€Å"Building a better TESCO† and it has shown lackluster results thus far (Hawke, 2011). In terms of corporate strategy, I believe that creating a performance management group which oversees the effectiveness of the steering wheels domestically would be a great next step. Hope (2012) argued that utilizing your performance management tools sometimes entails injecting the human element into the equation. TESCO uses steering wheels in all of its location and loyalty cards to keep customers feeling connected and appreciated. If TESCO invests in a performance management team which can monitor remotely the performance of the UK stores in community and financial perspectives they can consistently support growth in these locations where their performance is not as strong as overseas. 5.3 – Implementation plan for recommendations Overall, TESCO’s use of strategic performance management has been successful and I would recommend keeping the steering wheel intact. The model fits naturally with their objectives and mission for the future. This has been instrumental in overcoming threats from other organizations as well as allowing them to focus on growth potential. Recommendation #1 is to invest in Asian markets more aggressively in 2013. This recommendation can be  implemented by identifying areas for growth in existing markets where TESCO has a presence and building more stores. Establishing sales channels in these markets was a strategic investment which the company has already made and can be further utilized to extract and attract more profits. Recommendation #2 is to establish a performance management team to oversee domestic steering wheel systems for TESCO. The success of the corporation has been about measuring less with their tools and focuses more on customers. The focus of this team would be to provide more support to underperforming stores by supplementing by coaching them through their steering wheel templates and shopping lists. References Business Case Studies UK. â€Å"How training and development supports business growth† Graham, Kenny, (2005), â€Å"Strategic Planning and performance management† Taylor and Sons Marr, B., (2009), Delivering Success: How Tesco is Managing, Measuring and Maximizing its Performance, Management Case Study, The Advanced Performance Institute. De Wall, Andre, (2007). â€Å"Strategic Performance Management: a managerial and behavioral approach†. Unknown Axson, David A. (2010), â€Å"Best Practices and Planning and performance management† Wiley John and Sons. Katter, P. John, Heskett L. James, (1992), â€Å"Corporate Culture and Performance† Kotter Associates. Hope, Jeremy, (2012), â€Å"Beyond Performance Management, how and when to use 40 tools† Harvard Business Review. Hawke, Alex, (2011), â€Å"TESCO Reports record profits of 3.8 Bn† Guardian.co.uk Marr, Bernard, (2006), â€Å"Strategic Performance Management† Butterworth-Hineman, Oxford. Lunger, K., 2007, â€Å"A performance Management Primer: Why you need more than a dashboard to manage your strategy.† TESCO PLS (2010) (2011) from Tesco Corporate Paul, R. (2008) Balanced Scorecard: for Government and non-Profit Agencies. Canada: John Wiley Marr, Bernard, (2010), â€Å"The Intelligent Company, Five Steps to success with evidence based \management† Wiley, Oxford. Jones, Steve. 2012, â€Å"Strategic Performance Management, A Case Study at TESCO† Czarnecki, Mark T. (1999), â€Å"Managing by Measuring, how to improve your organization’s performance through effective benchmarking†. The Benchmarking Network Spitzer, Dean, (2007), â€Å"Transforming Performance Measurement: rethinking the way we measure†. AMACOM.

Comparison of the Chartres towers :: essays papers

Comparison of the Chartres towers The cathedral of Notre-Dame at Chartres must be one of the most beautiful and famous architectural specimens in the world today. The cathedral owns an exquisite silhouette against the sky of La Beauce. Two towers rise uncontested, to take watch over miles and miles of French countryside. Up close, the two towers, along with their spires, seem mismatched or unrelated. Yet, the two together provide for one of the most interesting juxtapositions in architecture. â‚ ¬Chartres cathedral has had a tumultuous history with both tragedies and triumphs. Charpentier notes that the site of the cathedral has also served various other purposes. The Romans had used the higher ground for a military camp, part of which still exists on the eastern side of the cathedral by the transition of apse to choir. In addition to the camp site, there was also the existance of a Gallo-Roman temple on the same site as Chartres cathedral. This temple is believed to have the same orientation as the cathedral and the cathedral's round apse uses the foundation of a Gallo-Roman defensive tower. This use of the Gallo-Roman defensive tower is also present at Bourges cathedral. The lower parts of the defensive tower formed a crypt which was incorporated into the ninth century Church of Gislebert, also known as Saint Lubin's chapel. On the night of September seventh 1020, the Church was completely razed by fire. â‚ ¬After the destruction of the church in Chartres, the bishop of Chartres, Saint Fulbert, spearheaded the campaign to build a church in Chartres. Only the crypt remained from the earlier Caroligian church and Fulbert built his Romanesque church around the enduring crypt. Fulbert's church lasted 200 years, but in 1134 the front faÅ“ade was damaged by another fire. It was at this time that a effort to update and restore the church was put into motion. The religious powers, along with the Crusaders longed for a greater monument. Thus, Chartres decided to beg in a separate tower.â‚ ¬This adding on to Romanesque churches was not unusual for the day. The abbey-church at Cluny, outside Italy, was given a new magnificent five-bay narthex and two bell-towers. A similar renovation was attempted at La CharitÅ’, but funds ran short and the upgrades could not be completed. â‚ ¬Hence, in 1134 the tower forming the north-west corner of the present-day cathedral, (the left tower of the west faÅ“ade elevation), underwent construction.

Violence and Politics :: Political Government Essays

Violence and Politics Let's talk about absolutely ridiculous pronouncements people make that either ignore simple fact or border on insanity. How about this one: Violence is no way to settle anything! Evidence suggests that violence is a very effective way of settling things. How about a few examples? In 1776, violence settled whether the thirteen colonies would be independent or remain under King George's thumb. In 1865, violence settled whether there'd be a Confederacy and a Union or just a Union. Between 1941 and 1945, violence settled whether Japan would control the Far East and whether Germany would control Europe. Violence settled whether American Indians owned and controlled the land now call United States or whether it would be European settlers and their progeny. In fact, violence has settled the question of land use-rights virtually everywhere. Violence and the threat of violence not only settles questions of land use; it settles other matters as well. For example, I have no problem with paying for the constitutionally mandated functions of the Federal Government - those enumerated in the U.S. Constitution. But I disagree with my earnings being given to dependent farmers, failing banks and poor people. Who has use-rights to my earnings is settled through threats, intimidation and violence. The U.S. Congress in essence tells me, "Williams, if you do not permit us to give your earnings to dependent farmers, banks, poor people, and any one else we deem worthy of your earnings, we will use violence to take your earnings and anything else you possess. Some readers might think that I am being overly hyperbolic. What do you think would be the outcome of the following scenario? I write on my IRS 1040 form: "I gladly accept my responsibility to pay my share of constitutionally mandated functions of the federal government. That share comes to about one-third of what you say I owe. I will not pay for activities not authorized by the Constitution." What happens. The IRS, the agents of the U.S. Congress, levies a fine and demands that I pay all they say I owe. I refuse. Then the IRS says, "We're going to confiscate your house." I say, "No you won't; that's my house." Then they send agents with automatic weapons to take my house. I stand and defend my house. The agents of the U.S. Congress kill me. The truth of the matter is that violence is such an effective and valuable means of settling differences that most governments demand to have a monopoly on its use.

Investigation into the Judgements of Slang

Whenever we open our mouths, judgements are made on our social class, intelligence and even personalities. These judgements are based on various speech elements, such as our accent, dialect, vocabulary and use of slang. It is the latter that this study is based on. The particular type of slang I intend to focus on has recently emerged alongside a new speech pattern known as Multi Ethnic Youth Dialect. (MEYD) My aim is to investigate whether there is a correlation between slang use and negative judgements made on the user. Secondly, as slang is frequently compared to Halliday's Anti-Language hypothesis, I intend to see if it can rationally be seen as such. I also wish to investigate whether specific lexical items a slang user deploys will affect the judgements. Much of the slang used takes origins from gang and drug culture and as a result my hypothesis is that if speakers use slang that holds its origins in these backgrounds, people are likely to extend the negative attributes that are assigned to gang members and drug users and thus label the speakers as violent drug users. I also hypothesise that users of slang will be judged more negatively than non-users of slang. Methodology In my study I will research the slang itself and the opinions people have on slang speakers. I will use recordings of slang speakers which I will analyse, and I shall conduct a survey to collect data on people's opinions. I have gathered four different recordings of youths speaking slang to varying degrees. I am aware that controlling extraneous variables will be difficult but I have attempted to do so by ensuring all speakers use non-standard English (evidenced by their universal use of glottal stops) and that all use either MEYD or Estuary English (EE). Though it would be preferable to have all speakers using MEYD I found that as slang is so deeply entwined with usage of this dialect I was not able to find speakers who used lesser amounts of slang in this dialect. I intend to give four questionnaires (one for each recording) to each participant. The questionnaire will list attributes and after the participant has heard each recording they will be asked to rate the speaker out of four for each attribute (for example, one attribute may be how aggressive the participant is, one would be not at all aggressive, whilst four would be very aggressive) Once I have collected my data, I shall analyse the speakers' language usage and the questionnaire results. I will look for a correlation between language and attributes assigned to speakers, in particular how negatively they are viewed in relation to their slang use. I am aware I cannot practically use as large a sample size as would be desirable, however, I shall take this into account when assessing my results. Analysis Multi Ethnic Youth Dialect (MEYD) In recent years, a dialect known as Multi Ethnic Youth Dialect has emerged. A wealth of research has already been conducted on this accent by such linguists as Sue Fox and David Britain. Though research has mostly been conducted into Multi-cultural London English (MLE) this is just one example of MEYD that is spread across different areas in the country. MEYD derives from multicultural diversity in inner city areas. Increased immigration in cities has lead to various forms of English merging. For the most part the predominant form of English is that spoken in Britain, but it is not uncommon to hear vocabulary that has derived from alternate forms such as the Jamaican Creole. The slang of MEYD derives from a variety of different dialects and creoles. Though I intend to focus on slang, there are several other notable features: An extremely rhythmic speech pattern deriving from West Indes' speech is typical. This rhythmic style of speaking is noticeable in speakers' use of plosives: For example the unvoiced dental fricative in â€Å"thing† being substituted with the voiceless dental plosive so that it is pronounced â€Å"ting†. Use of the glottal stop is also common, resulting from the influence of Estuary English of which the glottal stop is a defining element. These features are all used by speaker one when he says:- â€Å"you have a li*le (.) play area ting inni* where you can just go cotch† The â€Å"cotch† derives from the Jamaican Creole, the use of glottal stops are denoted by asterisks and â€Å"Thing† has been pronounced with the voiceless dental plosive reflecting the rhythmic features of MEYD. MEYD as Anti-Language In many ways, the use of MEYD by youths fits into the idea of anti-language developed by Halliday. In an anti-language words are used in an attempt to exclude people who are not members of the anti-language's discourse community. The dialect of some of my speakers fits well into the idea of anti-language. As Halliday's fourth requirement of an anti-language states the grammar of MEYD is virtually identical to the norm. Though there are some exceptions to the rule such as the second speaker's use of â€Å"you revved† instead of â€Å"you're revved† which derives from the Jamaican Creoles distinct pronoun use. However, the general rules of English grammar are for the most part entirely kept. Halliday's third rule dictates the main linguistic deviation in an anti-language is the lexis. This rule is followed by MEYD speakers and a great variety of lexis which does not adhere to common usage is displayed; for example the first speaker uses the term â€Å"cake† in place of â€Å"being looked for by police† though the word â€Å"cake† could be found in the dictionary, its definition would be entirely different from what the speaker uses it to mean. Halliday's suggestion is that an anti-language is born out of the speakers desire to distance themselves from accepted society. Though this would be difficult to prove of the speakers, it would be likely considering ideas of â€Å"youth rebellion† alongside the fact that most speakers of this form of slang are of the younger generation. Were MEYD to be considered an anti-language this would be hugely relevant to my study. As anti-language demonstrates a desire to be distanced from the norm, it is frequently linked with criminality and rebellious behaviour; this is not helped by the air of secrecy that surrounds anti-language making it difficult for non-users to understand. Lexis (Speaker 1/Very strong slang) The first speaker uses more slang words than any of the other speakers, for this reason, he can be seen as an example of very strong slang. However, to gain a full understanding of the slang he uses, it is necessary to examine the lexis he uses. The first non-standard word used is the concrete noun â€Å"crib†. The word originates from Northern America, initially meaning a â€Å"disreputable bar or brothel†. Since the mid nineteenth century amelioration has occurred and it is used simply to mean home. However, it is still mildly associated with criminality . The next word â€Å"innit†, is an abbreviation of â€Å"isn't it†. The word is not attached to a question but used as a filler or hedge that backs up as a rhetorical device. By using the term â€Å"innit† at the end of a sentence the speaker asks a rhetorical question. Though the question does not necessarily have to be answered it nonetheless seems to be intended to engage the receiver's attention. Though using the word, the receiver has directly been addressed and therefore brought further into the conversation. Despite its rhetorical advantages it is possible that from a prescriptivist point of view, the shortening may be perceived as a result of the speaker's laziness. The first speaker also uses the term â€Å"mans† which though not strictly lexical slang is nonetheless noteworthy. It is highly probable that the term â€Å"mans† derives from an overextension of the standard rules of pluralisation by people to whom English isn't 1st Language. The regular rules of pluralisation have been applied to the irregular plural â€Å"men†. Though the word â€Å"mans† would seem the most logical plural to apply it is grammatically incorrect as â€Å"men† is a plural group noun and thus it is highly likely judgements would be made on intelligence and education. The attributive adjective â€Å"hot† is used to mean â€Å"wanted by police†. The term has British origins and was initially used by thieves to describe stolen goods around the time of 1925. Broadening of the term has since occurred and not only objects but also people can be described as hot, this is demonstrated by the use of the adjective in reference to a person. It is not hard to see how the origins of the term may increase people's likelihood to assume criminality in the speaker. The word â€Å"cake† serves as a synonym to â€Å"hot†. It is also notable that through the speaker's use of slang he is unlikely to be viewed as well spoken and this may be judged to be of low intelligence. Alongside this, if we accept the suggestion of MEYD as a type of anti-language the speaker may be deemed as rebellious or associated with criminality. Lexis (Speaker 2/Strong slang) The second speaker does not use as much slang as the first; however it is still necessary to have a familiarity with the vocabulary he uses to gain a full understanding of his speech. He can for this reason be seen as an example of strong slang. He uses the verbal phrase â€Å"tripping out† which originates from 1970's slang. The initial term being â€Å"Acid Trip† which described a hallucinogenic experience caused by LSD. The verbal phrase originated from this and broadened to mean being under the influence of any type of drug and later to simply mean â€Å"acting crazy or funny†. Regardless of the effect of broadening many people still take the phrase to mean being under the influence of drugs and thus may associate the speaker with drug use. As with the first speaker, the word â€Å"cake† is used and one would assume similar effects to arise. Though it is notable that the word simply appears in a list of slang words the speaker has heard and so the effects may not be as extreme. The adjective â€Å"revved† has complex origins. Its original form was the abstract noun â€Å"revolutions†. The noun was used in reference to a car's revolutions and abbreviated to â€Å"rev† for ease of use. From this use the verb â€Å"to rev† was created via conversion and â€Å"to rev a car† meant â€Å"to force the engine to produce revs†. From this the passive stative verb form â€Å"to be revved† was used in reference to being excited, in this sense the word is a metaphor comparing the excited state of a person with a car producing several â€Å"revolutions† allowing it to go faster. The adjective â€Å"revved† finally derived from this. The term however can also be used to mean â€Å"under the influence of drugs† and as a result it is possible that speakers may again associate the speaker with drug culture. As with the first speaker, it is again possible that the second user of slang will be deemed as â€Å"not very well spoken† and possibly â€Å"unintelligent† or â€Å"uneducated† simply for his using slang. It is also noticeable that he says â€Å"you† in place of â€Å"you're†, this deviation from the standard derives from the Jamaican Creole but its grammatical incorrectness is again likely to make listeners deem the speaker unintelligent regardless of his genuine attributes. Lexis (Speaker 3/Weak slang) Unlike the first two speakers, no knowledge of slang or MEYD is required to understand the third speaker. Though slang is used, it is applied within the context of discussing slang terms. The speaker also does not use several features that are common in MEYD such as rhythmic pronunciation or loan words from ethnic minorities. The language used by the speaker fits more into the category of Estuary English (EE) than it does MEYD. Due to these features I have chosen to use this speaker as an example of Weak Slang. The speaker uses the term â€Å"busted† but in the sentence â€Å"I wouldn't say busted† thus denying any links with the word. Another word used is â€Å"bun† which was initially meant â€Å"tart† or â€Å"slag†. The adjective is English in origin and entered mainstream usage in the late nineteenth century. The speaker also talks about the attributive adjective â€Å"butters† that means â€Å"ugly†. It is most likely of UK origin and probably derives from clipping the phrase â€Å"butt-ugly†. The adjective's meaning has also broadened so that it can be used to refer to anything that causes aesthetic displeasure while previously it could only be used in reference to people. The term â€Å"minging† is an converted adjective from the derogatory noun â€Å"minger† that derives from the Scottish phrase â€Å"ming† meaning â€Å"stink†. The specific lexis of the speaker's vocabulary does not hold negative connotations. It is, however, possible that due to the fact all slang used by the speaker is in some way derogatory, judgements may be made on her friendliness. It is also possible that through using slang the speaker may be deemed â€Å"poorly spoken† or â€Å"unintelligent† Lexis (Speaker 4/No Slang) The final speaker uses no slang and is simply in this study to act a control which should enable me to determine the extent the data gained from the questionnaires is due to slang. Results With shocking regularity, the results followed a distinct pattern. On almost all categories the two speakers of strong slang are rated very poorly (the speaker of very strong slang coming lowest) followed by the speaker of weak slang, who tends to fair comparatively well in people's judgements. With no exception at all, the speaker who does not use slang is seen by people as the least aggressive, most educated, most friendly, hardest working, most intelligent and best spoken. 60% of people said the non-slang user was highly likely to develop a successful career compared to the very strong-slang speaker, who was deemed highly likely to fail a job interview by 70%. If we take an average score of each participant, inversing the characteristics seen as negative (so a score of 4 on aggression would be calculated as a 1) we can see how well each speaker is perceived to conform to the idea of a good and productive member of society. Looking at this â€Å"good citizen† rating, we see the same pattern emerge: Again, a direct correlation is visible between how favourably the speaker is looked upon and the degree of slang they use. Conclusions We can confidently assert that in this study there is an evident relationship between slang usage and the judgements made of individuals. However, an interesting question is whether the specific lexical items used have a direct relationship with the judgments made. If we look back to the previous analysis of the speakers' vocabulary, and assume that specific lexical items do have a relationship with the judgements made, we would be led to believe the very strong slang speaker would come out worst in all categories, with the exception of â€Å"likelihood to take drugs† which would be dominated by the strong slang speaker. Interestingly this is exactly the case. The â€Å"likelihood to take drugs† category is the only exception to the general principle that the very strong slang user is judged least favourable. The data collected would lead us to believe that: Slang is in fact an anti-language, or at least perceived as one. This is reflected by the fact that the stronger speakers of slang were judged to not conform to the notion of good citizenship. Users of slang are judged more negatively than non-users of slang. The more slang is used, the more negative the judgements. This is demonstrated in the consistent pattern of the results; with the strongest slang user being judged worst, and the non-slang user being judged best. Judgements made on slang speakers have a direct relationship with the specific lexical items used. This is suggested in the strong slang speaker (who used slang derived from drug culture) being judged more likely to take drugs than the very strong slang speaker. Evaluation In any investigation, an inquiring mind is necessary, and for this reason there are several issues of validity that we must discuss. Our only evidence for suggesting that specific lexical items impact the judgements made is that the strong slang speaker was judged higher than the very strong slang speaker in his likelihood to take drugs. However, the strong slang speaker is not judged particularly higher than the very strong slang speaker thus we cannot completely assert that it is indefinitely due to his specific vocabulary, although we can speculate. Were the suggestion correct, only a small difference would be expected, as judgement on specific lexical items requires participants to have knowledge of slang used and it is unlikely that they all would. The results do not hold infinite validity, and there are undoubtedly extraneous variables however they are consistent, though we cannot completely label the results as coming from the suggested cause: One could potentially put the results down to people judging the two females higher or judging the two northerners lower. But this would still not answer the question as to why participants rated the individual females or northerners in the order they did with such consistently. One alternative explanation is that there was an apparent correlation between the class speakers were judged to be, and the participants perception of these speakers (the lower the speaker's class, the worse they were judged) The class measurement was, however, simply a judgement made of the speakers, not an actual measurement, and so one would have to explain why the speakers were judged to be the class they were, which seems to take us full circle, and back to their usage of slang as an explanation. While the results do not prove the hypothesis, they undoubtedly suggest it. To know the hypothesis' results for sure, further study would be needed.